- "The bottom line on this whole business has not
yet been written."
- --Dr. Sidney Gottlieb CIA Technical Services Staff
director
for the MK-ULTRA program
-
-
- Eighteenth-century German philosopher Georg Friedrich
Hegel long ago developed, among other things, what he called the principle
of "thesis, antithesis, synthesis" to explain the process of
deliberately enacted social disorder and change as a road to power. To
achieve a desired result, one deliberately creates a situation
("thesis,")
devises a "solution," to solve the "problems" created
by that situation ("antithesis,") with the final result being
the ultimate goal of more power and control ("synthesis.") It
is unsurprising Karl Marx and his disciples like Lenin and Trotsky, as
well as the US government in its so-called War On Drugs, made this process
a keystone of their drive for total control of all individual actions that,
in their views, were not, in Mussolini s terms, "inside the
state"
and thus controllable by the same.
-
- In September 1942, OSS director and Army Maj. Gen.
William
"Wild Bill" Donovan began his search for an effective "truth
serum" to be used on POWs and captured spies. Beginning with a budget
of $5,000 and the blessing of President Franklin Roosevelt, he enlisted
the aid of a few prominent physicians and psychiatrists like George
Estabrooks
and Harry Murray as well as former Prohibition agent and notorious Federal
Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) director Harry Anslinger.
-
- The OSS/FBN team first tested a potent marijuana extract,
tetrahydrocannabinol acetate (THCA), a colorless, odorless substance,
lacing
cigarettes or food items with it, and administering them to volunteer US
Army and OSS personnel, all who eventually acquired the nickname
"Donovanís
Dreamers." Testing was also conducted under the guise of treatment
for shell shock.
-
- Donovanís team found that THCA, which they termed
"TD," for "truth drug," induced "a great loquacity
and hilarity," and even, in cases where the subject didnít
feel physically threatened, some useable "reefer madness."
Peyote,
morphine and scopolamine were judged too powerful to be used in effective
interrogation. In light of all this, Donovan concluded, "The drug
defies all but the most expert and search analysis, and for all practical
purposes can be considered beyond analysis." The OSS did not, however,
end the program. By that time, faced with the terrifying ship losses the
USA was suffering from German U-boats, Donovan pressed on, hoping to find
some effective chemical means to help interrogate captured U-boat
sailors.
-
- In May 1943, George Hunter White, an Army captain, OSS
officer and former FBN agent, gave standard cigarettes laced with THCA
to an unwitting August "Augie Dallas" Del Grazio, an influential
New York City gangster. Del Grazio, who had by then had done prison
stretches
for assault and murder, had been one of the Mafiaís most notorious
enforcers and narcotics smugglers. He operated an opium alkaloid factory
in Turkey and was a key participant in the long-running
Istanbul/Marsellies/NYC
heroin pipeline commonly known as the "French Connection."
Influenced
by the THC, Del Grazio (who was also helping to smuggle spies and Mafiosi
into German-occupied Italy) revealed volumes of vital information about
underworld operations, including the names of several high ranking city
and state officials who took bribes from the Mob. Donovan was encouraged
by the results of Whiteís tests when he wrote, "Cigarette
experiments
indicated that we had a mechanism offering promise in relaxing prisoners
to be interrogated."
-
- Unsurprisingly, the extensive wartime German experiments
with various hallucinogenic drugs at the Dachau concentration camp,
directed
by one Dr. Hubertus Strughold, later honored as "the father of
aviation
medicine," aroused great interest in the USA especially after an
October
1945 Navy technical mission to Dachau reported in detail on
Strugholdís
work. So great, in fact, that when the OSS and its successor, the CIA,
imported 800 German scientists of various specialties under the auspices
of the infamous "Project Paperclip" during 1945-55, it made sure
to include Dr. Strughold.
-
- Dr. Strugholdís barbaric "medical
experiments,"
for which his subordinates were tried and convicted as war criminals at
Nuremburg, were nothing more than a series of bizarre and unspeakably
brutal
tortures. Even so, he learned a lot about human behavior and a natural
alkaloid in the peyote cactus called mescaline (a substance long central
to many Native American and Australian aborigine religious rituals.) What
is little known to many is that mescaline (first isolated in 1896) is but
one naturally occurring lysergic acid derivative closely related to the
adrenal hormone epinephrine and the natural human neurotransmitter,
serotonin.
-
- Sandoz Labs chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann also discovered
a lysergic acid derivative called ergonovine, a medication used to retard
excessive postpartum uterine bleeding. Based on his work with ergonovine,
Dr. Hofmann first derived d-lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate-25 (LSD,
a refined alkaloidal liquid byproduct of a rye fungus, ergot) in a series
of experiments in Zurich in 1938. He used the naturally occurring lysergic
acid radical, the common item in all ergot alkaloids, as the major
component
of the substance. Further experiments in this vein yielded psilocybin,
derived from the Mexican Psilocybe cubensis mushroom, hydergine, essential
today in the improvement of cerebral circulation in geriatric patients,
and dihydroergotamine, an important ingredient in blood pressure
medication.
-
- The well-read and broadly educated Dr. Hofmann knew ergot
had a long natural and cultural history as both medicine and poison.
Ancient
Greek midwives used to give an ergot-based, gruel-like drink, called
kykeon,
to their patients about to give birth. Kykeon was also consumed during
the autumn Eleusinia, the ancient Greek agricultural festival celebrated
in honor of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. Across the Atlantic,
sacramental
Maya morning glories, beautifully depicted at the ancient Mayan temple-palace complex at Teotihuac·n, Mexico, dating to about 1450, also
contain
ergot-based alkaloids.
-
- However, the mindset the CIA had in its drug research
work was far different from that of Dr. Hofmannís. To our Cold War
spymasters, ex-Nazis like Dr. Strughold were definitely evil, but they
were definitely useful as well. This pervasive amoral pragmatism led, of
course, to the extensive and notorious MK-ULTRA experiments in which, for
nearly 25 years, thousands of everyday Americans, both military and
civilian,
were heavily dosed with numerous very potent artificial psychoactive drugs,
often without their knowledge or consent.
-
- This phenomenon of the obsessive "interests of
national
security" expediency combined with our celebrity-obsessed pop culture
that gleefully raises and shamelessly promotes snake oil hustlers as well
as the pharmaceutical industryís pricey "pill for every
ill"
philosophy, was a form of incompetence and arrogance far more hazardous
than any synthetic alkaloid ever developed and came as no surprise to those
like Dr. Hofmann. LSD, invaluable in psychiatric treatment ñ actor
Cary Grant was cured of alcoholism by carefully administered doses of the
drug under close medical supervision ñ is thousands of times more
potent than the traditional herbal mixtures. In fact, it is thousands of
times more potent than the milder of the entheogenic alkaloids. It is
effective
at doses of as little as a ten-millionth of a gram, which makes it 5,000
times more potent than mescaline. It should not be taken without training
or supervision.
-
- The Navy tested mescaline as part of its 1947-53 Project
CHATTER. MK-ULTRA was first organized in 1949 by Richard Helms under the
direction of Allen Dulles as Project ARTICHOKE, named after one of
Dullesís
favorite foods. It was renamed BLUEBIRD two years later and was termed
MK-ULTRA in 1953, and finally became MK-SEARCH in 1965 until its
"official
termination" eight years later.) MK-ULTRA was directly responsible
for the wide underground availability of LSD, phencyclidine (PCP ñ
also called "angel dust"), dimethyltryptamine (DMT),
dimethoxyphenylethylamine
(STP) and other powerful synthetic psychoactive drugs in the 1960s.
-
- These were distributed via the agencyís sometime
allies in organized crime and through the FBIís counterintelligence
programs (COINTELPROs) directed against various activist groups of the
period. The actual definition of the term MK-ULTRA remains unclear but
a former Army Special Forces captain, John McCarthy, who ran the
CIAís
Saigon-based Operation Cherry which targeted the Cambodian ruler Prince
Sihanouk for assassination, claimed that MK-ULTRA stood for
"Manufacturing
Killers Utilizing Lethal Tradecraft Requiring Assassination."
-
- On April 10, 1953, in a speech at Princeton University,
CIA director Allen Dulles (further feeding the already widespread but
misguided
fear about the high effectiveness of the alleged Chinese
"brainwashing"
of US POWs in the Korean conflict) warned that the human mind was a
"malleable
tool," and that the "brain perversion techniques" of the
Reds were "so subtle and so abhorrent" that "the
brain&becomes
a phonograph playing a disc put on its spindle by an outside genius over
which it has no control."
-
- Propaganda, in its simplest form, is condemning
oneís
opponent publicly for doing what one is already doing privately. Dulles,
of course, was that very "outside genius." Three days after
warning
assembled Princetonians of the disturbing ramifications of these
techniques,
he had directed MK-ULTRA researchers to perfect them. Dr. Sidney Gottlieb,
the CIAís expert on lethal poisons, (who reputedly was the
inspiration
for director Stanley Kubrickís bizarre "Dr. Strangelove"
character played by Peter Sellers in the 1964 film of the same title)
headed
up the operation as director of the Chemical Division of the Technical
Services Staff and, via a front organization called "The Society For
Human Ecology," distributed $25 million in drug research grants to
Harvard, Stanford, UC Berkeley and other institutions.
-
- Meanwhile, George Hunter White, of THCA-laced "Lucky
Strikes" fame, had returned to the FBN (now the DEA) at warís
end and continued to research behavior modifying drugs. In 1955, when
MK-ULTRA
was running full throttle, he was a high ranking FBN administrator who
helped the Agency develop and implement a similar operation called Midnight
Climax. In this infamous scheme, "safehouses" staffed with
prostitutes
were established in San Francisco. The hookers lured men from local taverns
back to these safehouses after their drinks had been previously spiked
with LSD. Whiteís team secretly filmed the subsequent events in
each house. The purpose of these so-called "national security
brothels"
was to enable the CIA to experiment with the use of sex and mind altering
drugs to extract information from test subjects, and it was planned, from
spies, POWs, defectors and saboteurs.
-
- Midnight Climax was terminated after eight years when
CIA Inspector General John Earman charged that "the concepts involved
in manipulating human behavior are found by many people within and outside
the Agency to be distasteful and unethical." He stated that "the
rights and interest of U.S. citizens were placed in jeopardy." Earman
further noted LSD "had been tested on individuals at all social
levels,
high and low, native American and foreign." Richard Helms,
MK-ULTRAís
bureaucratic godfather, summarily rebuffed Earmanís charges,
claiming
that "positive operational capacity to use drugs is diminishing owing
to a lack of realistic testing. Tests," Helms continued, "were
necessary to keep up with the Soviets." However, Helms reversed
himself
a year later when testifying before the Warren Commission investigating
the JFK assassination, claiming that "Soviet research has consistently
lagged five years behind Western research."
-
- Upon retirement from civil service in 1966, White wrote
a startling farewell letter to Dr. Gottlieb. He reminisced about his
Midnight
Climax work. His comments were frightening:
-
- "I was a very minor missionary, actually a heretic,
but I toiled wholeheartedly in the vineyards because it was fun, fun, fun.
Where else could a red-blooded American boy lie, kill, cheat, steal, rape
and pillage with the sanction and blessing of the all-highest?"
-
- Where else indeed, but as a member of what would later
become the hypocritical War on (Some) Drugs?
-
- By the end of the 1950s the CIA was funding just about
every qualified LSD researcher and psychologist it could find, through
such contractors as the Society for the Study of Human Ecology, the Josiah
Macy, Jr. Foundation, and the Geschichter Fund for Medical Research. Author
John Marks, in his 1975 book, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate,
identified the CIAís LSD research pioneers as:
-
- Dr. Robert Hyde at Boston Psychopathic Hospital Dr.
Harold
Abramson at Mt. Sinai Hospital and Columbia University in New York City
Dr. Carl Pfeiffer at the University of Illinois Medical School,
Champaign-Urbana
Dr. Harris Isbell of the NIMH-sponsored Addiction Research Center in
Lexington,
Ky. Dr. Louis Jolyon West at the University of Oklahoma, Stillwater Dr.
Harold Hodge at the University of Rochester (N.Y.)
-
- However, there were prominent critics of the US
governmentís
activities, the earliest among them being Aldous Huxley, the famed author
of the chillingly prescient 1932 novel Brave New World (which described
a totalitarian society whose population was completely controlled by
forcible
administration of a government-mandated "happiness drug" called
"soma.") While taking mescaline supplied by famed English surgeon
Dr. Humphrey Osmond (who discovered the close similarities between the
molecular structures of adrenaline and mescaline), Huxley completed another
novel entitled The Doors of Perception in 1954. In that book, the novelist
described his intensely personal vision of the world around him:
-
- "I continued to look at the flowers, and in their
living light I seemed to detect the qualitative equivalent of breathing
- but of a breathing without returns to a starting point, with no recurrent
ebbs but only a repeated flow from beauty to heightened beauty, from deeper
to ever deeper meaning. Words like "grace" and
"transfiguration"
came to my mind. Those idiots (MK-ULTRAns) want to be Pavlovians; Pavlov
never saw an animal in its natural state, only under duress. The
ëscientificí
LSD boys do the same with their subjects. No wonder they report
psychotics."
-
- Obviously, this isnít a typical CIA spook writing,
and, given Huxleyís incredible mind, creative vision and compassion,
weíre not talking about a moron or a mental case either. Which means
that giving someone mescaline while theyíre being tortured or
lobotomized
or electrocuted at Dachau will only tell you a lot about torture,
lobotomies
and electrocution, not about mescaline.
-
- As author Marks noted:
-
- It would become supreme irony that the CIAís
enormous
search for weapons among drugs ñ fueled by the hope that spies could
control life with genius and machines ñ would wind up helping to
create the wandering, uncontrollable minds of the
counterculture."
-
- Admiralís son and musician Jim Morrison led The
Doors, [of Perception] a quartet of Liverpudlians sang of "Lucy In
the Sky With Diamonds," while the Rolling Stones dropped transparent
hints about "Motherís Little Helper." To take a lesson
from Orwell, what is more important about the 1960s, indeed, about any
period in history, is not so much what really happened as how that period
is remembered publicly decades later.
-
- The public memories of that particular era were carefully
manipulated in great part by the deliberate creation and promotion (via
television and the recording industry) of the phony and in reality quite
small "drug/rock/hippie subculture." The first underground LSD
labs were actually set up by the FBI in 1963 in both New York City and
San Francisco. Many began to incorrectly confuse the ancient medical art
of herbalism with the shenanigans of amateur basement
"flower-power"
and "biker" chemists. Overenthusiastic pitchmen like social
psychologist
Dr. Timothy Leary and Beat poet Allen Ginsberg sadly failed to sufficiently
stress that key difference, although the technically competent Leary
clearly
understood the artificially high potency of LSD.
-
- Leary (and his longtime associate, psychologist Richard
Alpert) matured professionally in a CIA-funded research world. In 1948,
Leary, then a UC Berkeley graduate student, attended the yearly convention
of the left-wing American Veteransí Council in Milwaukee. There
he met CIA officer Cord Meyer. Meyerís professional specialty was
infiltrating and discrediting various organizations deemed
"un-American"
or "disloyal." Meyer persuaded Leary to help him. Leary
acknowledged
Meyerís influence, crediting him with "helping me understand
my political-cultural role more clearly."
-
- During 1954-59 Leary was the director of clinical
research
and psychology at the Kaiser Foundation Hospital in Oakland, Calif. The
personality test that made him famous, "The Leary," was actually
used by the CIA to test prospective employees. A grad school classmate
of Learyís, CIA contractor Frank Barron, worked with the Berkeley
Institute for Personality Assessment and Research, which was funded and
staffed by CIA psychologists. In 1960 Barron, with government funding,
founded the Harvard Psychedelic Drug Research Center. Leary followed Barron
to Harvard, becoming a lecturer in psychology where he remained for three
years. Learyís Harvard associates included former chief OSS
psychologist
Harry Murray, who had monitored the early OSS "truth serum"
experiments,
and numerous other knowing CIA contractors. One of Dr. Murrayís
many test subjects was a Harvard undergraduate math major named Theodore
Kaczynski.
-
- In the spring of 1963, Leary and Alpert left Harvard
and founded the International Foundation for Internal Freedom (IFIF) in
the small Long Island community of Millbrook, N.Y. where they continued
their hallucinogenic drug research. Multimillionaire William Mellon
Hitchcock
generously bankrolled the IFIF and later financed a huge black-market LSD
manufacturing operation.
-
- Even so, Leary carefully stressed proper mindset, setting
and dosages in a book he coauthored with Alpert and Ralph Metzner, The
Psychedelic Experience. It was based on an ancient Tibetan shamanic manual,
The Book of the Dead. The latter work referred to an herbal tea similar
in content to but far less powerful than LSD, and insisted on mental
discipline
as an inherent part of the process. The Incans of Andean South America,
for instance, were an invaluable source of medical knowledge, and used
whole herbs like ayahuasca and the coca leaf, not their artificially
refined
alkaloids, and spiritual technique was also taught as an key part of the
process.
-
- However, much like the crusading "drys" before
and during Prohibition, the MK-ULTRA inquisitors with their police state
mentality in concert with misinformed and emotionally distressed LSD users,
had found their "devil drug," (the term used by the Harrison
Tax Act advocates in the 1910s and Marijuana Tax Act backers in the 1930s)
replete with tragic tales of already emotionally distressed and lonely
young people quite unprepared for such an artificially powerful entheogen.
It was also well within CIA policy to randomly distribute LSD laced with
the lethal poison strychnine so as to create "horror stories"
useful as propaganda. Dr. Hofmann himself chemically confirmed the presence
of pure strychnine in several random street samples of LSD.
-
- Consistent with its policy of deliberately confusing
the beneficial ancient herbs with extremely dangerous synthetic alkaloid
derivatives, the CIA surreptitiously distributed of these synthetic
compounds,
termed "psychedelics," to the public. One of them was STP,
originally
developed as an incapacitating agent for the Army in 1964 at Dow Chemical.
Dow even made the STP formula public information three years later. This
potent synthetic put many unsuspecting people on a three-day trip, and
sent many, hysterical with anxiety, to the emergency room. That, of course,
was the purpose of its distribution.
-
- During 1955-75, the Army tested LSD (termed EA-1729)
and PCP on several of its enlisted men at what was then the headquarters
of its Chemical Corps, Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, something described
in detail by Bill Kurtis in a televised 1995 A&E Investigative Reports
segment titled "Bad Trip to Edgewood." The CIA also tested PCP
(in conjunction with electroshock "therapy" and sleep
deprivation)
at Allain Memorial Institute in Montreal under the direction of the
notorious
Canadian psychiatrist Dr. Ewen Cameron. The Chemical Corps (whose commander
in the 1950s, Lt. General William Creasy, advocated a new military strategy
of LSD-based "nonkill warfare") then stockpiled PCP for use as
a "nonlethal incapacitant." Excess doses of PCP, reported the
CIA, could "lead to convulsions and death." Soon, PCP was
flooding
the streets.
-
- Edgewood also received an average of 400 product
"rejects"
a month from major US pharmaceutical firms. These "rejects" were
actually drugs found to be commercially useless because of their
demonstrated
hazards and numerous undesirable side effects. In 1958, Edgewood obtained
its first sample of a "reject" called phenylbenzeneacetic acid
(BZ) developed by pharmaceutical giant Hoffmann-LaRoche, later known by
its street nickname as "brown acid."
-
- BZ (some 10,000 times as powerful as LSD) inhibits the
production of hormones which aid the brainís transfer of messages
and instructions across nerve endings (synapses), thereby severely
disrupting
normal human perceptual, behavioral and sensory patterns. Its effects
generally
last about three days, although symptoms-migraine headaches, giddiness,
disorientation, auditory and visual hallucinations, and erratic if not
maniacal behavior ñ could persist for as long as six weeks.
"During
the period of acute effects," noted an Army physician, "the
person
is completely out of touch with his environment." The Army also
developed
artillery shells and rockets with warheads able to deliver large dosages
of BZ to selected targets.
-
- In the summer of 1964, Beat novelist Ken Kesey (the
author
of One Flew Over The Cuckooís Nest and who had been an MK-ULTRA
test subject at Stanford along with Allen Ginsberg and Grateful Dead
musician
Bob Hunter) launched a yearlong cross-country trip in a Day-Glo painted
school bus filled with friends called "Merry Pranksters." The
Merry Pranksters distributed thousands of doses of LSD along the way (a
phenomenon colorfully described in author Tom Wolfeís 1969 novel,
The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test) supplied by one Ronald Hadley Stark. Stark
(who died in 1984) was a CIA operative fluent in five languages with access
to unlimited public funds and numerous high-level contacts in business
and government throughout the world.
-
- For instance, when the underground manufacture and
distribution
of LSD was suddenly derailed in 1969 due to the scarcity of its key
ingredient,
ergotamine tartrate, and increasing federal law enforcement pressure,
Stark,
via the Laguna Beach, Calif.-based Brotherhood of Eternal Love, a small
group of local surfers led by chemist Nicholas Sand, got it quickly back
on track. For five years, Stark, aided by the Castle Bank of the Bahamas
(which pioneered the art of money laundering for the Mob) and his contacts
in a French pharmaceutical firm, facilitated the mass production and
distribution
(via the Brotherhood and other groups) an even more powerful strain of
LSD nicknamed "orange sunshine." This firm also manufactured
BZ. Stark (who operated LSD labs in Brussels and Paris as well) claimed
he was going to supply orange sunshine as an offensive weapon to CIA-backed
Tibetan rebels fighting the Chinese occupation.
-
- Stark also was a close friend of the Los Angeles founders
of a small breakaway Scientology sect called "The Process Church of
the Final Judgement," English expatriates Robert DeGrimston Moore
and Mary Ann McClean.
-
- Regular attendees of the Process Church included members
of the Beach Boys, the Rolling Stones and other prominent pop performers
as well as an ex-convict and wannabe rock musician named Charles Manson.
Manson and his followers became heavy users of orange sunshine ñ
the trademark "bad acid" of the day ñ which they were
all on when, on Mansonís orders, they carried out the brutal August
1969 Tate-LaBianca murders. When Stark (who is believed to have distributed
an estimated 50 million doses of LSD during his Agency career) was arrested
for drug trafficking in Bologna in 1975, Italian magistrate Giorgio
Floridia
ordered his release on the grounds that he had been a CIA agent since 1960.
Judge Floridia documented and justified this using a list of Starkís
numerous intelligence contacts.
-
- These were and are all classic government
COINTELPRO-style
tricks ñ this is how natural herbs and their mild,
pharmaceutical-grade
derivatives were quickly and easily made lethal and consequently demonized.
How was this done? First, foolish claims were made that there was no
difference
between safe whole herbs and their potentially deadly ultra-refined
alkaloids,
next, the best of the traditional herbs and the milder of the
pharmaceutical-grade
alkaloid derivatives were made unavailable, and finally, the streets were
flooded with potentially deadly synthetics. Deliberate perversions of
science
like angel dust continue to be a great propaganda tool for our diehard
drug warriors, and the worn catchall excuse of "the interest of
national
security" is used to justify appalling covert drug capers ranging
from CIA-sponsored heroin production and trafficking in Southeast Asia
in the 1960s to the Bush/Clinton/Mena/Nicaragua cocaine-for-arms smuggling
schemes in the 1980s.
-
- These Constitution-shredding police state methods were
adapted from the Nazis and the Soviets by and large and were applied by
the CIA, NSA, DEA, BATF, IRS and FBI against us. Scores of groups, ranging
from the American Indian Movement and Black Panthers to militias and
religious
organizations like the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas (in which the
government
first falsely charged as illegal methamphetamine dealers in order to get
a Posse Comitatus Act waiver to use military force against them) were
either
disrupted by agents provocateur-style riots, bombings and armed standoffs,
smeared in the mainstream news media through the "Reichstag Fire"
approach, or, in the case of the Davidians, physically exterminated. The
War on Some Drugs is merely a horrible extension and intensification of
these tried-and-true Hegelian methods, a "war" in which we all
lose.
-
- Short Bibliography
-
- Bowart, Walter; Operation Mind Control, Dell Publishing,
1978.
-
- Delgado, Jose, Physical Control of the Mind, Harper,
NYC, 1969.
-
- Huxley, Aldous, The Doors of Perception, Harper, NYC,
1954.
-
- Lee, Martin; Shalin, Bruce, Acid Dreams, 1986.
-
- Marchetti, Victor, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence,
New York, 1974.
-
- Marks, John, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate,
New York, 1975.
-
- Masters, Robert & Houston, Jean, The Varieties of
Psychedelic Experience: The Classic Guide to the Effects of LSD on the
Human Psyche, 2000.
-
- McCoy, Alfred, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity
in the Global Drug Trade, Lawrence Hill, 1972, rev. 1991.
-
- Meerloo, Joost, The Rape of the Mind, Crowell, NYC,
1956.
-
- Skinner, B.F., Beyond Freedom and Dignity," Knopf,
NYC, 1971
-
- Smith, Harris R. OSS: The Secret History of
Americaís
First Central Intelligence Agency, Berkeley, 1972.
-
- Stevens, Jay, Storming Heaven ñ LSD and the
American
Dream, 1998.
-
- April 19, 2001
-
- Michael E. Kreca lives in San Diego and has been a
financial
reporter for Knight-Ridder, Business Week and the Financial Times of
London.
-
- Copyright © 2001 LewRockwell.com
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